The global influenza pandemic struck a world already reeling from the Great War. Soldiers lived in overcrowded trenches and field hospitals, where hygiene was poor and immune systems were weak. As Arnold notes, this was a “perfect storm” for disease: a mix of global travel, dense populations, poor nutrition, and psychological trauma.

The first wave of the flu in spring 1918 was relatively mild. It was the second wave, beginning in autumn, that proved catastrophic. Victims often died within hours of exhibiting symptoms. Lungs filled with fluid, turning skin bluish-black from lack of oxygen. With no antibiotics to treat secondary infections and no effective antivirals, medical science was helpless.

The Human Toll

Catharine Arnold’s Pandemic 1918 brings to life the personal stories of those who suffered through the pandemic. In cities like Philadelphia, mass graves were dug to accommodate the mounting dead. Public gatherings were banned, schools closed, and funerals conducted without mourners.

Doctors and nurses were in short supply, and volunteers were recruited from all walks of life to care for the ill. In some places, entire communities shut down. In others, chaos and despair reigned. The Red Cross played a vital role, but even their resources were quickly overwhelmed.

As Arnold poignantly writes, the flu “turned the act of breathing—something humans take for granted—into a death sentence.” The psychological impact was profound, with survivors haunted by memories of loved ones dying alone and streets lined with coffins. shutdown123